Drug Addiction

          Traffic in drugs constitutes a major problem for the federal authorities, because of the alarming increase in youthful addict for parents as well as teachers.

          The losses of power of self control through drugs addiction are not only harmful to individual concerned but also to society. A drug addicts has such an overwhelming craving for the drug that he does not count the cost of getting it, crime, violence, murder have been price all too often. The addicts developed a tolerance to drug so that increasing dose is necessary in order to produce desired effects. When not under influence of drug the addicts tend more and more to manifest typical disturbance of nervous system. If drug is withdrawn from addicts, characteristics withdrawal symptoms appear, with acute physical pain in addition to such symptom as severe cramp in abdomen and legs, muscular twitching, vomiting and diarrhea. The addicts will be irritable, restless and unable to relax and will breakout in sweat and goose pimples. Rest sleep is difficult or impossible to achieve.

          Treatment for drugs addictions are quite drastic and should be attempted only by qualified medical personnel with adequate facility. The first steps in treatments are withdrawal of drug, abruptly, rapidly or gradually followed by a period of psychotherapy and rehabilitation. This final period should last at least four months otherwise there are an even greater danger of relapse to addiction among most patient, information regarding treatments are available from the health service providers.

          The chief drug used by addict is opium and its derivatives morphine and heroin, cocaine, hashish, and marijuana made from hemp. The wide spread use of bromide and barbiturate, sedative and sleeping spill available to general public has also raised problem. The barbiturate fulfills all requirements of habit forming drug. Overdoses are often fatal. Therefore legal control of sale of the drug has been tightened.

Dust

          Dust fine pulverized powder of dry earth or refuses found all through the atmosphere except perhaps on mountains top and out at sea. An atmospheres free of dusts are far healthier than which is not. Nature and industry produce dust of various kinds against which people cannot wholly protect themselves. In some instance, dust may be disastrously harmful to human being.

          Microscopic particles of pollen dust borne by wind come in contact with the mucous membranes of eye and respiratory tracts and produces symptom of allergy such as seasonal hay fever, hive and other disorder. Industrial dust produced by grinding of metal and in the manufacture of wood product flour, sugar, textile, leather and feather also affects human being.

          DT stands for delirium tremens.

          Duodenum, first portion of small intestine, leading from stomach, it contain the opening of the pancreatic and common bile duct.

          Most dust contains some carbon and other organic matter. Many people sensitive to dusts and has skin reaction when dust come in contact with skin. Other dust, when inhaled irritates windpipe and bronchial tube. Coal dust may get into lungs causing pigmentation and may stimulate production and may stimulates production of fibrous tissue, inorganic dust contains free silica incites silicosis, a special form of change in lungs. In silicosis silica act produce nodules throughout lungs which can detect by x-rays. Lungs damaged in this way are prone to secondary infection, including tuberculosis.

          Asbestosis is a special form of lung disorder in which the magnesium silicate contained in asbestos produces fibrous changes that are different from those caused by pure silica, however, asbestosis and silicosis are much alike, both being form of the lung disorder pneumoconiosis.

          To inhibit inhalation of dust, various form of exhaust system, air conditioning and improve ventilation has been develop. Helmets and breathing device worn by miners and worker employed in operations producing excessive dust have also been helpful.

          Organic dust, like carbon, differ from inorganic dust like carbon differ from inorganic dust in that they do not cause change in the lungs such as are produced by the action of silica. Organic dust particle do not penetrate lung tissue but instead are absorbed into tissue of body.

          Drought area is great dust producer, but immediate health hazard, aside from the relationship between dust storm and secondary pneumonia, are not serious. More harmful is mental and economic hardship suffered by people living in dust bowl region.

The skeletal or voluntary muscles are attached to bone and form the external body contours. Consciously controlled by the brain their main functions are locomotion of the body.

1.                 Sternocleidomastoid

2.                 Trapezius

3.                 Deltoid

4.                 Pectoralis major

5.                 Serratus Anterior

6.                 External Oblique

7.                 Abdominis.

8.                 Rectus Abdominis

9.                 Iliopsoas

10.            Adductor Longus

11.            Gracilis

12.            Sartorius

13.            Vastus Lateralis

14.            Vastus Medialis

15.            Tibialis Anterior

16.            Soleus

17.            Gastrocnemius

18.            Biceps

19.            Flexors of Hand and Wrist

20.            Branchioradialis

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Anticonvulsants

Anticonvulsants

Many drugs has been discovered which can stop convulsion of epilepsy or other convulsive disorder. Among best known are Dilantin, Peganone, Phenurone, Paradione, Tridione, Mysoline, Milontin.

These drugs are of greatest importance because today thousands of persons with convulsive disorder are enabled to go months or even longer without a convulsion through proper use. Because of their potency, only a physician who has thoroughly studied patient and who understands nature of convulsive disorder should prescribe drug of his choice according to needs of individual patient.

Certain other drugs which act on nervous system may prevent cough by their local effects on nervous system and on tissues involved in coughing. Codeine, a derivative of morphine, is a powerful drug in preventing coughs. There are, however other drugs not derived from morphine which prevent cough through action on nervous systems.

The tranquilizing drugs include particularly thorazine pacatal trilafon compazine sparine dartal vesprin and temeril. Under these groups also come derivative of rauwolfia which include serpasil, reserpine and similar preparations. Most widely known of tranquilizers is meprobamate which are also known as equanil. This, however, are relaxant drug rather than a depressant.

Many drugs has been discovered which can stop convulsion of epilepsy or other convulsive disorder. Among best known are Dilantin, Peganone, Phenurone, Paradione, Tridione, Mysoline, Milontin.

Nervous system stimulants

There are drugs which stimulate nervous system and which is used to overcome depression to energize body and to oppose actions of sedative and tranquilizers. Many of these drugs are toxic in sense that they may raise blood pressure, stimulate beating of heart and produce great breathlessness.

For years people have known that tea and coffee which contain caffeine or theobromine or theophylline, have power to stimulate. Students have taken caffeine or many cups of coffee to keep awake during study. Some derivatives of choline and of xanthine have effects of stimulating central nervous system. New psychic energizers which control endogenous depression are Nardil Catron Tofranil and many more.

Contraceptives

Contraceptives are used to inhibit action of sperm cells or to prevent the passage of the sperm into the uterus. They are of many varieties and are discussed under others section of these work.

Skin Remedies

          The number of chemical substances used upon the human skin rungs into hundreds. This is used to protect the skin, to control blemishes, to disinfect skin, to stop itching, to take cares of scaling and oiliness, to remove skin and for many others purpose. In chapter on skin many of these remedies are detailed discussed.

Alcohol Deterrents

          Among new remedies recently developed drugs like disulfiram or anti abuse which causes person who take them develops unfavorable symptom to drinking alcohol. Such a drug obviously must use with greatest of care because of possible dangers from poisoning.

Enzymes

          Within the human body there is substances produced which act to aid functions of body. One enzyme called hyaluronidase can limit the spread of fluid in the body and is used to prevent scar tissues.

          Another enzyme can inactivate penicillin and are used when there is toxic reaction from use of penicillin.

          Some enzymes prevent clotting of blood and is used to dissolve clot. One such enzyme Chymotrypsin, is injected into eye to loosen the tissues around a cataract.

Stomach and intestinal drugs

          Persons who suffer from excess acid can take drug which stop flow of acid. Other drug protect wall of stomach against effects of acid.

Blood Derivatives

          Many substances have been derived from blood and is used in medicines. These includes the whole blood itself as are used for transfusion, the serum from blood, liquid portion of blood (which are called plasma), the clotting material (which are called fibrin). Other substance such as heparin, dicumarol, tromexan prevent clotting of blood and are used after coronary thrombosis to prevent further clotting. Some drugs have been developed which is used to prevent bleedings. These include Thrombin, which is derived from the blood itself.

          Various drugs are used to stimulate growth of red blood cell, including particularly iron and various form and modification of iron. Also there are organic substance derived from liver, from wall of stomach which may stimulates growth of red blood cells.

Hormones

The glands of internal secretion include pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glands the sex glands. From all of these, substances have been derived which have powerful effects. From adrenal glands come cortisone and hydrocortisone, also adrenalin, aldosterone. The pituitary gland comes pituitrin, ACTH and various other hormones which stimulate the action of the breasts, sex gland, thyroid or adrenals. Sex gland which includes ovaries and testes gives rise to hormones which is of great importance in functions of body, including function of growth.

          The pituitary believed to contain hormones which are important in affecting the color of the body and the growth of the body.

          The pancreas comes insulin which control the use of sugar by the body, trypsin which are digestive ferment. (See also Endocrinology).

Immunologic Agents

          By injection of various substances into human body the blood produces substances which resist proteins which have been injected. By such techniques we derives various serum and antitoxins. Thus there are vaccines and serums against many diseases. These vaccines are now available against influenza whooping cough poliomyelitis rabies tuberculosis and many other disorders.

          Serum is made against almost any type of germs but they are effective only according to response of the animals to the toxic substances.

Edema-Reducing Agents

          Among the greatest of recent discovery is drug which can causes elimination of fluid from body. Among this is particularly diamox and diuril. This has been found to be of greatest importance in heart failures, in various other conditions in which fluid collect in tissue. Before, this new discovery, various mercury derivatives was used and some is still used for same purposes. On other hand, a drug called Benemid derived from benzoic acid serve to block renal tubules so that a drug like penicillin are held in body until it can have its effect. 

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Anti fungal Agents

Anti fungal Agents

          Various fungi may attack human body infecting the skin or lungs or indeed other portions of body. One substance which attacks them particularly is griseofulvin but there are other substances derived from chemical such as Iso-par, Asterol, Sterisil and sodium Caprylate. Another are Triacetin and one of the most frequently used is Undecylinic Acid which is commonly called Desitin.

Antimalarial agents

          Malaria is caused by an organism known as the plasmodium which occurs in various forms in the body. Quinine and various derivatives of quinine which have been developed act particularly against the malarial organisms.

          Among the important derivatives are Camoquin, Aralen, Primaquine, Daraprime and Atabrine which were much used during World War II because these drugs are so powerful they are used only when prescribed by a physician and in manner prescribed. Drugs may be used to cure malaria or even taken to prevent malaria.

Antipedicular Agents

          Pediculosis is caused by three varieties of lice, which are commonly called head louse boy louse and they crab louse. A number of drugs have been developed which are especially active against lice and these are called pediculocides. These drugs are applied externally and great care is taken to see that they do not get into the eyes or on the mucous membranes.

Disinfectants and antiseptics

Among the most important of all disinfectants is chlorine. An ideal disinfectant has never been discovered because such a substance would have to have the power to destroy all forms of all infections agents and still not be injurious in any way to human tissue cells or be capable of causing sensitization in human beings. Every antiseptic must, therefore, be used in relationship to its effects not only on the organisims that are to be destroyed but also on the human body. Various antiseptics and disinfectants depend principally on chlorine, mercury, silver, peroxides, carbolic acid, soaps, and similar substances.

Vermifugal Agents

          The human being is susceptible to infestation with a great number of worms, such as the pinworm, the whipworm, the tapeworm, and hookworm, the filarial, and even such strange worms as the loa loa. Drugs have now been developed which can rid the body of these worms but as with the disinfectants and antiseptics, they must be used with great care because of the danger of toxic reactions.

Anticancer Drugs

          Already there are available and in use under controlled conditions in hospitals a number of drugs which can destroy the cells of cancer. These are known as cytotoxic agents. Many of them are highly poisonous and therefore, they must be used only under completely controlled conditions. Among older drugs which have been used in this way are derivatives of arsenic and urethane, also nitrogen mustards and substances derived from folic acid which stop metabolism. X-ray is used to destroy cancer cells and radioactive isotopes may be used directly in contact with cancer cells. There are also hormones like estrogens and testosterone which act against the spread of cancer cells.

Autonomic Drugs

          Certain drugs act particularly against pain in the nerves, against effect of stimuli coming along nerves, and in tissues of brain. One class of these drug is known as autonomic drugs since they are concerned with the effects of nerve impulses coming through autonomic nervous system. This is also known as sympathetic nervous system.

          Some drugs induce responses by the body which mimic the responses which come when stimuli pass laong the nerves of sympathetic nervous system. One of autonomic drugs is amphetamine or Benzedrine. This acts to overcome depression. Its effects are opposed to those of the sedative drugs like the barbiturates. This drug has been found useful in depressing the appetite and it alleviates sleepiness and fatigue; however, it is not desirable to eliminate fatigue by destroying the sensation. The real answer to fatigue is rest. The dangers lie in elimination of warning signal of fatigue in people who are overdoing. There are also the possibilities of habit formation from continued use and finally there is possible dangerous effect on the circulation of the blood.

          Other drug of similar type is Dexedrine, Paredrine, Octin and Isoprel. The number of possibilities is considerable and perhaps a score of drugs acting in a similar way will eventually become available.

          Some drugs are used to constrict the membranes of the nose-as adrenalin and Privine. An appetite Ddestroyer is preludin.

Adrenergic Blocking Agents.

          Drugs have been found which can block the stimuli coming through the sympathetic nervous system. These drugs act to oppose the action of adrenalin. They lower blood pressure by causing dilation of the blood vessels and they stimulate the action of the intestines. Usually they increase the heart rate.

          Among the most well known of these drugs are ergotoxine, erogotamine, piperoxan, and dipenamine.

Cholinergic Agents

          These drugs act to produce effects such as occur when the parasympathetic nerves are stimulated. They can slow the action of the heart, dilate blood vessels, and increase gastrointestinal motion and secretion. Most of these drugs are derived from a substance called choline.

Drugs Used for the Heart

Cardiovascular drugs are those whose action on heart and other portions of blood vessel system affect either total output of heart or distribution of blood to various branches of circulation. Some of these drugs affect rhythm and output of heart; others dilate blood vessels, and still others may act to affect hardening of the arteries.

          Most important of all drugs for heart is digitalis and associated with it a variety of preparation and derivatives.

          Many substances have been discovered which have a specific effect on high blood pressure. All of these are potentially toxic and can be used only when prescribed properly by the physician. One of the best known is hexamethonium, also Apresoline, mannitolhexanitrate, Inversine, Ansolysen, and Metamine.

Central Nervous System

          Many drugs have their principal actions in depressing the central nervous system. These include anesthetic drugs, hypnotics, and sedatives. Here also come the anticonvulsants, the drugs used against cough, and the tranquilizing drugs.

          The analgesics are used to relieve pain. For this purpose morphine is best known, but similar effects are had from milder salicylates like aaspirin and phenacetin. These mild analgesics do not produce addiction and are usually considered safe for sale without a prescription.

          The more powerful drugs which have been developed must be sold only with a prescription.

          Many modifications have been made of opium and its derivatives, including morphine. All of these substances must be prescribed only with the use of a license to prescribe under the Anti Narcotic Act.

          Many persons have become accustomed to taking sedative drugs in order to encourage sleep. There are great numbers of barbituric acid derivatives which are used for this purpose. These are effective as sedatives and are used in insomnia, hysteria, nervousness, mental disturbances, and epilepsy. They act directly on the central nervous system.

Insomnia is of several varieties

          One in which falling asleep is difficult; another in which sleep comes easily but is very quickly disturbed so that the person awakes frequently during the night or exceedingly early in the morning. Drugs should never be taken routinely for this purpose. Sleep may be promoted in a variety of ways. Perhaps it is best that sleep-producing drugs be used only when prescribed and only in the manner of use prescribed and only in the manner of use prescribed by the doctor. A very small dose of a sleep producing drug may start sleep and thereafter the person sleeps well throughout the night.

          Many sleep producing drugs are followed by hangover which seriously interferes with the usual activities.

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Drugs and their uses.

Drugs and Their Uses

         Modern men are protected against diseases, is relieved of pain, and occasionally cured by discoveries that have been made in professions of pharmacology pharmaceutical manufacture and pharmacy.

Household remedies

        Elsewhere in this book are discussions of family medicine chest with a list of household remedies that are easily available and which may be used by any person according to his own judgment. Examples: laxatives like mineral oil phenolphthalein, cascara, and substances like agar and psyllium seed which add bulk to excretions. Included also are such mild antiseptic substances are iodine, mercurochrome, and similar preparations. For pain relievers there are combinations of aspirin, phenacetin, and caffeine sold under a wide variety of names as well as simple preparations which include aspirin alone or aspirin buffered or other products related to aspirin.

         Most of potent and possibly toxic preparations prescribed by doctors are not sold over counter without a physician’s prescription. The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act regulate the labeling of drugs. It prohibits certain statements from appearing on labels and demands warning labels for other substances which may be habit-forming or which are especially toxic. A new drug cannot be introduced into sale between states unless an application has been made for it. This application must show by adequate scientific evidence that drug is safe for use under ordinary conditions.

          The American Medical Association’s Council on Drugs publishes annually a volume known as “new and Nonofficial Drugs” in which drugs are classified as to their general character. If product is manufactured properly and claims made for it are justified it is described in this book.

ANESTHETICS

          Anesthetics are not of occurs easily available except by prescription and are generally used only in hospitals and in doctor’s office. Local anesthetics are substances which may be put on the skin or injected under skin and thus produce freedom from pain in areas concerned. One type of anesthetic is injected into spine to block the nerves of spine, thus preventing pain during childbirth. When drug is permitted to flow in gradually during the childbirth, the method is described as continuous caudal analgesia.

           The general anesthetics include a wide variety of substances, such as ether, nitrous oxide, oxygen gas, ethylene, cyclopropane, and several other substances which anesthetist gives tot eh patient for inhalation. Another type of anesthesia is basal anesthesia in which drugs capable of blocking sensation are injected into veins. These are usually derivatives of barbituric acid.

Antihistamines

         During allergic reactions a substance known as histamine is released into the tissues. The antihistamines are used in such conditions as hay fever, asthma, and rhinitis because they block histamine. When these substances are used in mild hay fever, particularly in first part of the season, they are usually effective in relieving symptoms.

          The antihistamine drugs are useful also in prevention and treatment of general reactions such as allergic coughs, the allergic inflammation of nose, the eruptions of hives, and itching which accompanies other allergic diseases.

        Any of antihistaminic drugs can occasionally produce undesirable reactions in some people. The physician must be aware of this possibility. Sometimes antihistamines produce a tendency to deep sleep. In other instances they may produce inability to concentrate, dizziness, and disturbed coordination. The worst symptoms that may result are tremors, nervousness and even convulsions. These are some of reasons why antihistamines in large doses should be used only when prescribed by a doctor. Several antihistamines are available in drug stores and can be purchased without a prescription. These are usually used to stop excessive secretion from nose during the beginning of a cold and sometimes are applied in ointments for ivy poisoning or other skin reactions.

Motion Sickness Drugs

          Most of effective motion sickness drugs are now dependent on an antihistamine action. Among most common of these are Dramamine, Bonine, Marezine, and various other preparations of antihistaminic drugs.

          For years derivatives of scopolamine and hyoscine have been used effectively in preventing motion sickness.

        Since all of these drugs possess possibility of harm, they should not be taken continuously unless prescribed by doctor. On most ships and on airplanes attendants usually have available some of these anti-motion sickness remedies and they will give one or two doses with understanding that dosage is not continued and is only for immediate relief over a short period.

Anti-infective

          Certain substances have the power to stop action of bacteria, to impede their growth, and sometimes to destroy them. For instance certain drugs are known to be effective in controlling germ of tuberculosis. These include streptomycin, one called PAS or para-amino-salicylic acid and also isonicotinic acid derivatives of which one most frequently mentioned is isoniazid. There are several forms of these drugs known by various names which physician prescribes according to his choice.

          A substance known as oxyquinoline is available in various forms and is used frequently against germs or fungi.

          Another drug called mandelamine has special property of being eliminated in urine and acting as a urinary antiseptic.

          Another chemical group is known as nitro furans. These substances and their derivatives are effective against a variety of diarrheal disorders, infections in urinary tract, and infections throughout body, particularly by pus-forming germs.

          Among the earliest and most important of anti-infective substances were the sulfonamides, discovered by Domagk, for which the received the Nobel Prize. The sulfonamides are available in a variety of forms. The ones to be used in the control of a known infection are chosen according to their established ability to stop the growth of germs that are concerned. Among the best known sulfonamides were sulfadiazine and sulfamerazine. Anotheris sulfamethazine. A newer form is sulfacetamide which are available in various forms, depending on the area of the body where it is to have its effect.

          The modifications of sulfa drugs are numerous. Still another are known as Kynex/Midicel. There are varieties of gantrisin which is designed to affect specific portions of body and to be used either in tables capsules/given by injection.

          The antibiotics are substances derived from various living organism which can stop growth of germ or destroy germ. The first to receive extensive use were penicillin. Then came many other of which about twenty are in common use. Their name is streptomycin, Chloromycetin or Chloramphenicol, Bacitracin, Tyrothricin, magnamycin, Seromycin or cycloserine, Erythromycin or Ilotycin, Neomycin, Albamycin, Nystatin or Mycostatin which are used especially against mantillas.

          Another group includes oleandomycin which are especially active against germ like staphylococcus, streptococcus, and pneumonococcus. It may also have effects in stopping growth of gonococcus & meningococcus. These varieties are Cyclamycin.

          Pencillin is used in a variety of ways either by tablet taken by mouths, or caby injections under skin according to what physician thinks are best for the individual patient.

          Among variety of forms of pencillin is crysticillin which is a combination of pencillin with a local anesthetic. Some form of pencillin has been prepared so that they may be injected into muscles and remain active over long periods of time.

          Another new antibiotic is polymyxin also ristocetin and various tetracyclines which include Aureomycin Terramycin Achromycin and Panmycin. Most recent are Vancomycin and Viomycin. Calistin is an antibiotic used principally against certain bacteria, pseudomonas species and organism that cause dysentery.

          Here is an important is the fact that there are some two thousand possible antibiotics. One of latest to be developed is an antibiotic which apparently can affect growth of cancer cells. This is known as actionomycin D.

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8th class result 2015, 5th class result 2015, pec result 2015, elementary result 2015

8th class result 2015

5th class result 2015

What is Punjab Education Commission (PEC)

Punjab Education Commission (PEC) is a Government institution which was maintain primary and elementary level education, conduct examinations of 5th class and middle standard. PEC is working under the supervision of Education Department. District Wise Results of 5th class and 8th class Examinations 2015 are as under: